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Teaching methodologies


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Teaching methodologies

Let's start with some basics about language teaching and let's discover methods that can be integrated in language education in cross-border vocational contexts.

What do you know about language teaching methodologies?

When talking about different teaching methodologies, please keep in mind: No single method can guarantee successful language acquisition.

Since the beginning of the 21st century, the Council of Europe has been promoting pluriculturalism and plurilingualism focusing on language learning as a priority for Europe’s competitiveness. Open borders mean migration, cross-border communication, education and work opportunities in multiple languages. The aim of the Common European Framework of Languages (CEFR) is to promote methodological innovations and new approaches to teaching languages through a communicative language teaching approach for a plurilingual and pluricultural society. However, despite their efforts, language teaching in many countries/parts of the world is still focusing on grammatical competence over the communicative fluency.

The purpose of this chapter is to overview the old and the new methods of teaching to enrich the teaching repertoire.

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Objectives
  • Provide a comprehensive view of conventional and contemporary language teaching methodologies.
  • Understand the effectiveness of the different methods in advancing plurilingualism and pluriculturalism.
  • Equip language instructors with the understanding and resources to aid language acquisition for professionals in various settings. 
  • Raise awareness of teaching techniques and their use in the classroom.
  • Enable you to choose the teaching method that fits best to your needs and purposes.

1. Why are the early basics of language teaching important in cross border vocational training?

Now that you have an understanding of the history of language teaching methodologies, it is important to note that we do not have to reinvent the wheel. There are many ways in which the principles of the methods can support us in teaching language in cross-border communication.

Let’s have a look at the Grammar approach today

The Grammar approach is old-fashioned and only some elements of its methodologies should be applied in the classrooms today. However, those portions may be very effective in teaching, especially, in plurilingual education.

Even though these teaching methodologies have little theoretical grounding, they are very popular in the classrooms around the world. According to Echevarria (2010) they even dominate the business of language instruction. 

Comparative analysis of the methods used for students studying languages within the same time framework and learning motivation revealed the following advantages and disadvantages of each methodology:

Compared with the Direct- and the Audio-Lingual-Approaches, the Grammar Approach was scored accordingly from 1 (very bad) to 10 (very good):


Source: https://www.altalang.com/beyond-words/what-is-the-best-language-teaching-method/

What about the potentials of the different methods for cross-border vocational training?

The Grammar approach in cross-border vocational training

This approach focuses on:

  • Translation, it builds on the knowledge of 2 languages 
  • Reading and writing
  • Analysis of cognates, false cognates, syntactic peculiarities
  • Audio-visual multi-modal translation method evolved from it


Possible activities may be:

  • Translating manuals, documents, etc.
  • Finding cognates, false cognates, similarities and differences between languages.
  • Making a comparative analysis of documents on both sides of the border.
  • Analyzing linguistic/cultural differences. 
  • Reading authentic texts for pleasure.
  • Reporting on new essential vocabulary.
The Direct method in cross-border vocational training

This method is about:

  • Vocabulary that is used based on word frequency 
    • Visual representation of vocabulary – working with real things/environment
    • Explanation of words. Guessing words from explanation (no translation). 
  • Sentences, which are taught as units of speech. Students learn/repeat full sentences.
  • Correct pronunciation


Possible activities may be: 

  • Taking students to work places to learn new vocabulary in context. 
  • Showing plans, pictures with new vocabulary.
  • Using vocabulary in full sentences.
  • Describing a word and making students guess the meaning.
  • Asking students to describe words to each other in different languages, e.g. official language, migrant language, neighboring language, etc.
  • Reading sentences for pronunciation.

The Audio-lingual method in cross-border vocational training

This method focuses on:

  • Forming habits in providing automatic responses in daily exchanges 
  • Working on pronunciation (pronunciation pairs in case of poor pronunciation)
  • Role plays with substitution drills


Possible activities may be: 

  • Designing minimal pair exercises for pronunciation practice.
  • Creating typical dialogues that can be role played by substituting information.
  • Using minimal pair techniques to cultural differences, linguistic variation. 
Good source for dialogues: https://quill.pixel-online.org/gp_teachingSources.php 
L’approche grammaticale en matière de formation professionnelle transfrontalière

This approach focuses on:

  • Translation, it builds on the knowledge of 2 languages 
  • Reading and writing
  • Analysis of cognates, false cognates, syntactic peculiarities
  • Audio-visual multi-modal translation method evolved from it (see new methodologies, insert link here)


Possible activities may be:

  • Translating manuals, documents, etc.
  • Finding cognates, false cognates, similarities and differences between languages.
  • Making a comparative analysis of documents on both sides of the border.
  • Analyzing linguistic/cultural differences. 
  • Reading authentic texts for pleasure.
  • Reporting on new essential vocabulary.
La méthode directe de la formation professionnelle transfrontalière

This method is about:

  • Vocabulary that is used based on word frequency 
    • Visual representation of vocabulary – working with real things/environment
    • Explanation of words. Guessing words from explanation (no translation). 
  • Sentences, which are taught as units of speech. Students learn/repeat full sentences.
  • Correct pronunciation


Possible activities may be: 

  • Taking students to work places to learn new vocabulary in context. 
  • Showing plans, pictures with new vocabulary.
  • Using vocabulary in full sentences.
  • Describing a word and making students guess the meaning.
  • Asking students to describe words to each other in different languages, e.g. official language, migrant language, neighboring language, etc.
  • Reading sentences for pronunciation.

La méthode audiovisuelle dans la formation professionnelle transfrontalière

This method focuses on:

  • Forming habits in providing automatic responses in daily exchanges 
  • Working on pronunciation (pronunciation pairs in case of poor pronunciation)
  • Role plays with substitution drills


Possible activities may be: 

  • Designing minimal pair exercises for pronunciation practice.
  • Creating typical dialogues that can be role played by substituting information.
  • Using minimal pair techniques to cultural differences, linguistic variation. 

Good source for dialogues: https://quill.pixel-online.org/gp_teachingSources.php 

2. What can we learn from communicative approaches?

The Communicative approach is based on the idea that the most important goal is to communicate a message. If the person is understood, the communication is successful. Also in language learning settings, the language ought to be used in the most authentic context; therefore, drawing attention to the situation, register, speaker's role, and setting. The essence of this approach is to motivate students by selecting age and interest appropriate problem-solving tasks, games, role-plays that could develop communicative competences in all four areas – speaking, reading, writing, and listening. Looking at the basic considerations of this approach, a great potential opens up in cross-border (vocational) language learning contexts, where authentic communication situations can easily be created and sought for real.

For more information: https://ontesol.com/communicative-approach/

Learn more about Communicative language learning

Communicative language learning (CLL) is also known as counseling language learning and was mainly influenced by Charles A. Curran, a priest and a psychology professor in the 1960’s. The main features of the methodology are:

  • Fluency and independence
  • Contextualization
  • Dynamic, creative, cooperative, not competitive learning
  • Non-defensive learning
  • Native language use allowed when necessary or beneficial
  • Learner-focused approach
  • Real world tasks and authentic language use is encouraged
  • Focusing on communication right from the beginning of language learning; communicate your meaning, struggle, and negotiate 

How to use portions of the method in cross-border vocational language education

  • Have a student driven curriculum.
  • Work on language chunks in any language that then are translated and analyzed by the learners. The recorded dialogues are then analyzed. A perfect opportunity in cross-cultural contexts to analyze intercultural communication issues, linguistic differences and similarities. 
  • Choose a grammar topic, e.g. the imperative, and embed practicing it in an authentic language use situation. In cross-border vocational language education, this may include e.g. formulating steps how to operate a machine in two or more languages. 

Please note: 

In border regions, real word tasks and authentic language must not only be artificially created in classroom, but can be easily found due to the geographical proximity and the resulting real situations of interaction with the neighbour.

For more information: 

Get to know the silent way

The silent way method is designed by Caleb Gattegno in 1963 who sought for alternative ways of learning. It is built on the idea that the teachers should be the silent ones, and the students should speak as much as possible. The teachers do not teach, but help learners make sense of language. The teacher uses color-charts or Cuisenaire rods to teach word boundaries, contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. The method is based on trial and error.

The basic features of the methodology are: 

  • Creation of a fearless and enjoyable environment
  • Learning through problem solving and creation of novel utterances
  • Progress, not perfection through recycling of structures
  • Retention speeds up learning
  • Learners work with their own resources
  • Learners are responsible for what they learn
  • Further learning during sleep
  • Learner-focused approach

How to use portions of the method in cross-border vocational language education

  • Ask students to talk about a work topic in pairs, the teacher just listens and helps in case of vocabulary questions, for example.
  • Encourage students to communicate in the company, even if errors occur
  • Include digital media, ask students to make an interview or podcast and record it, afterwards you can listen to the speech production

For more information:

What about the Natural Approach?

The natural approach is one of the communicative language teaching approaches that is most commonly used around the world. Most of the language teaching textbooks are based on this method. Popular representatives of the Natural Approach are Tracy Terell and Stephen Krashen. Krashen developed a language acquisition theory with the five hypotheses: Acquisition-Learning, Input, Monitor, Natural order, Affective Filter Hypothesis. 

Language teaching today is dominated by the Natural approach; however, this approach is also criticized. Plurilingual approaches to language learning are increasingly integrated and are more common in today's global economy. Furthermore, language teaching is influenced today by many multidisciplinary theories and discoveries. 

The main features of the methodology are: 

  • Interpersonal communication skills for fluency
  • Devotion to every day communication (games, skits, group work)
  • Inductive grammar learning
  • Simplified texts can be discussed in the first foreign language
  • Students acquire language, they are not forced to learn it
  • Vocabulary is the key
  • Comprehensible input
  • Error correction is negative in terms of motivation, attitude and embarrassment 
  • Affective domain primary

How can the Natural approach be integrated in cross-border vocational language education?

You may use:

  • Theatrical roleplays and assumption of pluricultural identities in workplaces
  • Student dictated curriculum (needs analysis)
  • Learning through real world tasks and authentic language (virtual or real fieldtrips)
  • Communication through struggle and negotiate (plurilingual repertoire, mediation)
  • Individual learning styles, differentiated learning, affective domain

Further ideas include:

For more information: 

En savoir plus sur l’apprentissage des langues communicatives

Communicative language learning (CLL) is also known as counseling language learning and was mainly influenced by Charles A. Curran, a priest and a psychology professor in the 1960’s. The main features of the methodology are:

  • Fluency and independence
  • Contextualization
  • Dynamic, creative, cooperative, not competitive learning
  • Non-defensive learning
  • Native language use allowed when necessary or beneficial
  • Learner-focused approach
  • Real world tasks and authentic language use is encouraged
  • Focusing on communication right from the beginning of language learning; communicate your meaning, struggle, and negotiate 

How to use portions of the method in cross-border vocational language education

  • Have a student driven curriculum.
  • Work on language chunks in any language that then are translated and analyzed by the learners. The recorded dialogues are then analyzed. A perfect opportunity in cross-cultural contexts to analyze intercultural communication issues, linguistic differences and similarities. 
  • Choose a grammar topic, e.g. the imperative, and embedd practicing it in an authentic language use situation. In cross-border vocational language education, this may include e.g. formulating steps how to operate a machine in two or more languages. 

Please note: 

In border regions, real word tasks and authentic language must not only be artificially created in classroom, but can be easily found due to the geographical proximity and the resulting real situations of interaction with the neighbour.

For more information: 

Découvrez la voie silencieuse

The silent way method is designed by Caleb Gattegno in 1963 who sought for alternative ways of learning. It is built on the idea that the teachers should be the silent ones, and the students should speak as much as possible. The teachers do not teach, but help learners make sense of language. The teacher uses color-charts or Cuisenaire rods to teach word boundaries, contracted forms, prepositions, word order and word stress. The method is based on trial and error.

The basic features of the methodology are: 

  • Creation of a fearless and enjoyable environment
  • Learning through problem solving and creation of novel utterances
  • Progress, not perfection through recycling of structures
  • Retention speeds up learning
  • Learners work with their own resources
  • Learners are responsible for what they learn
  • Further learning during sleep
  • Learner-focused approach

How to use portions of the method in cross-border vocational language education

  • Ask students to talk about a work topic in pairs, the teacher just listens and helps in case of vocabulary questions, for example.
  • Encourage students to communicate in the company, even if errors occur
  • Include digital media, ask students to make an interview or podcast and record it, afterwards you can listen to the speech production

For more information:

Qu’en est-il de l’approche naturelle?

The natural approach is one of the communicative language teaching approaches that is most commonly used around the world. Most of the language teaching textbooks are based on this method. Popular representatives of the Natural Approach are Tracy Terell and Stephen Krashen. Krashen developed a language acquisition theory with the five hypotheses: Acquisition-Learning, Input, Monitor, Natural order, Affective Filter Hypothesis. 

Language teaching today is dominated by the Natural approach; however, this approach is also criticized. Plurilingual approaches to language learning are increasingly integrated and are more common in today's global economy. Furthermore, language teaching is influenced today by many multidisciplinary theories and discoveries. 

The main features of the methodology are: 

  • Interpersonal communication skills for fluency
  • Devotion to every day communication (games, skits, group work)
  • Inductive grammar learning
  • Simplified texts can be discussed in the first foreign language
  • Students acquire language, they are not forced to learn it
  • Vocabulary is the key
  • Comprehensible input
  • Error correction is negative in terms of motivation, attitude and embarrassment 
  • Affective domain primary

How can the Natural approach be integrated in cross-border vocational language education?

You may use:

  • Theatrical roleplays and assumption of pluricultural identities in workplaces
  • Student dictated curriculum (needs analysis)
  • Learning through real world tasks and authentic language (virtual or real fieldtrips)
  • Communication through struggle and negotiate (plurilingual repertoire, mediation)
  • Individual learning styles, differentiated learning, affective domain

Further ideas include:

For more information: 

3. What can we learn from bilingual and plurilingual methodologies? From bilingual to plurilingual education

Let’s start with bilingual education

The term bilingual education has many definitions and understandings. Generally, it refers to full acquisition of two languages both of them having the same value and status. Typically, it includes teaching of academic content in two languages. However, to what extent, how, or why languages are used may vary significantly around the world. Here are the most common models: 

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Let’s discover Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) for cross-border vocational language education

CLIL is a method based on the principle that two languages are used simultaneously not only to communicate, but to learn subject matter at the same time. It is based on the idea that 'all teachers are teachers of language' (The Bullock Report - A Language for Life, 1975). Besides the language competence needed for work or study, the method focuses on cultural awareness, internationalization, and increased motivation.

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Content-Based Instruction (CBI)

CBI is also known as language across curriculum or immersion instruction. It is built on the premise that it is detrimental to postpone content learning until the learner knows another language well enough. The method focuses on prioritizing content over language by scaffolding complex authentic material and immersing students in practical tasks. 

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The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) 

The SIOP-Model was designed to close the academic achievement gap in the US-American school system. The primary goal is to enable people of all backgrounds to understand linguistic and learning needs of bilingual students for successful academic achievement. The model focuses on how to make academic content more accessible by drawing specific attention to key language features, effective learning strategies, multiple intelligence, differentiated instruction, and culture. The model is based on eight interrelated components:

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Cognitive Academic Language Learning (CALLA)

CALLA is an instructional model designed to increase academic language learning. It is based on three main categories of learning strategies: metacognitive, cognitive, and social /affective. The model is based on four foundational beliefs: 

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Last, but not least!

Today, there is a shift from bilingual to plurilingual teaching and learning methodologies and the whole linguistic and cultural repertoire of learners is ideally included in language education. This is of special importance in cross-border working and learning environments as companies are increasingly multilingual. The more language one understands, the more possibilities exist on the labour market.

4. What if we need non-academic language learning approaches?

What if we need non-academic language learning approaches?

The previous sections focused on language teaching methodologies that have been designed with academic goals in mind. However, academic goals in vocational training are not always desired. This chapter aims at overviewing language teaching approaches used for non-academic language needs. Several terms are used when talking about specialized languages. Let’s discover some concepts.

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

Project-Based learning engages students to learn collaboratively by engaging in real -world tasks. Through authentic projects, learners need to use the knowledge and skills in their foreign languages, learners practice all four skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing), collaborate and construct knowledge, which promotes autonomy, socialization, cognitive development, and competence. Various PBL project models have been suggested. 

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Scenario-based learning

The scenario based teaching/learning has been implemented successfully with plurilingual professionals. The strategy is based on the concept of task-based language learning. In this model, students work with different communicative constellations, and scenarios can be created with regard to students’ interests in terms of content and communicative tasks. The following elements are essential in scenario-based learning:

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Theatrical language learning

Theatrical language teaching has roots in a number of different approaches to language teaching and learning. However, the use of drama and theatre techniques in language teaching can be traced back to the 1960s. One of the key figures in the development of theatrical language teaching was Viola Spolin, an American theatre practitioner who developed a number of improvisation techniques. Some of Spolin's techniques, such as the "Yes, and..." rule and the "What Happens Next?" game, have been adapted for use in language learning and are now widely used in theatrical language teaching. Theatrical language teaching has been adapted to professional contexts where students have to play pretend scenes from very real vocational contexts. 

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Language for Specific Purposes (LSP)

LSP is a widely used approach to teach learners with very specific linguistic needs for a job or training. Language is used beyond the usual academic constraints. Typically, the programs go through needs analysis to understand the specific needs of the learners, and then craft the syllabus together with the learners to assure that the learning is the most effective and useful. LSP courses were often viewed as programmes that focus merely on specific linguistic needs, but globalization demands that learners are not only proficient linguistically in their field, but simultaneously develop critical thinking skills and cultural knowledge which are the core values of traditional humanities education. Therefore, today LSP is based on three core principles: language, culture, professional participation in global market. 


Receptive plurilingualism in the neighbouring language

This approach to teaching is based on receptive plurilingualism (Intercomprehension). Several research studies have been performed to discover that teaching plurilingual decoding skills improves metalinguistic awareness and, thus, plurilingual cultural competence (Let’s talk about language(s) and Understanding languages through other languages).

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Gamification

Gamification is an approach to language teaching that involves incorporating game elements and mechanics into language learning activities to make them more engaging and motivating for learners. This approach is based on the idea that games can provide a fun and interactive way for learners to practice language skills and receive immediate feedback on their progress. Gamers of language are given a clear goal or objective to work towards, some of which could be vocabulary acquisition, grammar practice, or conversation skills, and they receive rewards or points for achieving that goal. 

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In this section, you have discovered different approaches; you may also have detected similarities. It’s up to you now to find the method that suits best to your needs and purposes.

References in English

5. An exemplary insight in projects on raising awareness for the neighbouring languages

Kiemų festivalis-Courtyard festival

In May/June, the Courtyard Festival in Kaunas brings neighborhoods and people of all cultures and professions together to share their passions and joys. Making friends with people who grew up in different cultures and live next door is an evaluable asset to increasing multiculturalism. In turn, the Institute of Foreign Languages of Kaunas University has taken part in the festival in the last years to build awareness to the importance of plurilingual repertoire. 

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Kalbų degustacijos - Language tasters

A language taster is a short introductory lesson that enables learners to gain a preliminary understanding of a new language. This type of lesson typically covers basic language features such as sounds, grammar, and vocabulary, and is designed to pique learners’ interest in the language and assist them in deciding whether or not to pursue further study. 

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Now it is your turn:

  • Have you already taken part in such an activity? What experience have you made? 
  • Can you imagine to organize such an activity or even a little festival? Talk with your colleagues or let your students be the organizers. 

Tandeminis mokymas - Tandem learning

During the autumn semester of 2022, students had the opportunity to participate in a Tandem Spanish-English language learning programme. 

Students from Vytautas Magnus University studying Spanish and students from Don Bosco University of El Salvador were among those who attended the programme. Tandem learning is a language learning approach where two individuals with different native languages are paired up to learn from each other. This method involves equal language exchange, where half of the time is dedicated to practicing one language and the other half to practicing the other language.

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Vėlyvieji pusryčiai su kalba - Brunch with languages

VMU hosted a unique event called ‘Languages for Brunch.’ Participants were invited to create their own language bouquet by learning some phrases in various languages (namely, Bulgarian, Estonian, Spanish, Italian, Polish, Lithuanian, German, and Ukrainian). This event not only allowed participants to learn and experience new languages but also provided an opportunity for guests to come together and enjoy a brunch while sharing their experiences. 

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6. Using the project-based approach in cross-border vocational (language) education

The project-based approach and its potentials in language learning

Let’s have a closer look at the project-based approach and at what it can specifically bring to language learning in cross-border vocational settings. In vocational training, students of different (future) professional backgrounds come together and should be trained according to the needs of their future fields of works. In groups of students with different professional backgrounds, it is thus important to adjust the learning to the individual needs of groups of students and to make it more flexible, choosing e.g. different topics aiming at representing future situations. Working with the project-based approach allows to make students work in groups on different topics, thus allowing each group to focus on aspects that are important and specific to their future field of work.

  • In which fields of language teaching and learning is it particularly important to take in mind the different needs of the students corresponding to their fields of formation? How can the project-based approach help to improve the specific linguistic skills of different students?
  • Do you think that the project-based approach improves the learner’s motivation to learn the language? Why (not)?
  • On which topic could you work (according to your field of formation), if you followed the project-based approach in a language learning class in your school? Find three different topics, which are relevant for your future work. Describe in which way you could work on one of them following the project-based approach!

For additional input, get inspired by our sample lesson plan.

Take away

  • Knowledge of different language teaching methodologies can help making choices that enhance language learning in a specific context.
  • Using the practical examples provided may help you to find ways how to raise (language) awareness and how to build plurilingual repertoire of your learners in cross-border vocational (language) education.